ABSTRACT The ethanolic extract of Melipona beecheii Bennett 1831, propolis from Yucatán Mexico was evaluated in vitro for the determination of its phenolic compound content, antioxidant capacity and antifungal activity. The results were compared against those of the ethanolic extract of Apis mellifera propolis. The total phenolic content, flavonoid content and flavanones–dihydroflavonols content were assessed by colorimetric methods. The antifungal activity was assessed in vitro against Candida albicans. For the ethanolic extract of M. beecheii propolis; total phenolic content, was 263.25 ± 8.78 µg/ml, total flavonoid content was 768 ± 204 µg/ml and flavanones–dihydroflavonols content was 335.42 ± 15.08 µg/ml. For antioxidant activity assessed as DPPH scavenging and iron reducing power ethanolic extract of M. beecheii propolis reported IC50 of 32.47 and 1.60 µg/ml of gallic acid equivalent respectively. Regarding antifungal activity against C. albicans, the minimal inhibitory concentration and minimal fungicidal concentration for ethanolic extract of M. beecheii propolis were 1.62 ± 0.33 and 2.50 ± 0.22 µg/ml of dry extract; For both minimal inhibitory concentration and minimal fungicidal concentration, ethanolic extract of M. beecheii propolis required 30% less concentration of dry extract than ethanol extract of A. mellifera propolis to exert the same antifungal actions against C. albicans. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about the flavonoid and flavanones–dihydroflavonols content of M. beecheii propolis. Due to the lack of information available about the stingless bee's honeycomb products, the study and conservation of endemic honeybees should remain as an active focus of research.

ABSTRACT Thirteen pentacyclic triterpenes, methyl 3-oxours-12-en-23-oate, marsformosanone, taraxerone, β-amyrenone, α-amyrenone, lupenone, 24-methylencycloartan-3-one, moretenol acetate, β-amyrin acetate, germanicol acetate, 24-methylencycloartanyl acetate, β-amyrin, and α-amyrin were identified in a chloroform-methanol propolis extract from Melipona beecheii. Additionally, were identified in this propolis, hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester, octadecanoic acid, methyl ester and 1-triacontanol. The purification of the propolis extract was carried out using different chromatographic techniques, including vacuum liquid chromatography, gravity column chromatography and gel filtration chromatography Sephadex LH-20. The identification of the metabolites was performed using mass spectrometry.

The objective of this review is to inform about the progress achieved on genome mapping of phytopathogenic fungi, its main advantages, and applications. In order to better understand and manage pathogens, genetic linkage maps have been developed for some phytopathogenic fungi; also, through support of DNA markers it has been possible to map and identify some genes of interest [avirulence/pathogenicity genes, MAT (mating type) locus, some which are involved in toxin production, and pigment production, mainly intersterile]. On the other hand, one of the main uses of physical maps is to locate and identify the region of a particular gene within a chromosome. Some genes are used as primers to hybridize with a specific chromosome, for example: ribosomal DNA (DNAr), â-tubuline (âtub), superoxidise dismutase (sodl), nitrate reductase (niaD), histidine kinase 7 (Skn-7), and opsine (ops), just to mention some of them. In order to understand the structure, function, and evolution of the genome of phytopathogenic fungi, some research groups maintain priorities like: Producing genetic maps of high density, develop physical maps, obtain the complete sequence of the genome, and to locate genes based on sequences (EST's or genome sequences) known by sequence similarity.

El objetivo de la presente revisión es informar los avances que se han logrado sobre el desarrollo de mapas de genomas de hongos fitopatógenos, sus principales ventajas y aplicaciones. Para un mejor entendimiento y manejo de los patógenos se han desarrollado mapas genéticos en algunos hongos fitopatógenos; además, mediante el apoyo de los marcadores de DNA se han podido identificar y desarrollar mapas de algunos genes de interés [avirulencia/ patogenicidad, el locus MAT (grupo de apareamiento), algunos que están involucrados en la producción de toxinas, y en la producción de pigmentos, ínter estériles, principalmente]. Por otra parte, uno de los usos principales de los mapas físicos es localizar e identificar la región en el cromosoma de algún gene en particular. Algunos genes son usados como sondas para hibridar con algún cromosoma, como: DNAr (DNA ribosomal), âtub (â-tubulina), sodl (superóxido dismutasa), niaD (nitrato reductasa), Skn-7 (histidina kinasa 7), y ops (opsina), por mencionar algunos de ellos. Con el fin de lograr entender la estructura, función y evolución del genoma de hongos fitopatógenos, algunos grupos de investigación mantienen prioridades como obtener mapas genéticos de alta densidad, desarrollar mapas físicos, obtener la secuencia completa del genoma y localizar genes en base a secuencias (STE's o secuencias de genomas) ya conocidas por similaridad de secuencias.